Whispering gallery mode sensors

Matthew R. Foreman; Jon D. Swaim; Frank Vollmer

doi:10.1364/AOP.7.000168

Advances in Optics and Photonics
Vol. 7,
Issue 2,
pp. 168-240
(2015)
•https://doi.org/10.1364/AOP.7.000168

Whispering gallery mode sensors

Matthew R. Foreman, Jon D. Swaim, and Frank Vollmer

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Matthew R. Foreman, Jon D. Swaim, and Frank Vollmer, "Whispering gallery mode sensors," Adv. Opt. Photon. 7, 168-240 (2015)

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- Instrumentation, Measurement, and Metrology
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About this Article
History
- Original Manuscript: December 1, 2014
- Revised Manuscript: March 18, 2015
- Manuscript Accepted: April 13, 2015
- Published: May 22, 2015

Abstract

We present a comprehensive overview of sensor technology exploiting optical whispering gallery mode (WGM) resonances. After a short introduction we begin by detailing the fundamental principles and theory of WGMs in optical microcavities and the transduction mechanisms frequently employed for sensing purposes. Key recent theoretical contributions to the modeling and analysis of WGM systems are highlighted. Subsequently we review the state of the art of WGM sensors by outlining efforts made to date to improve current detection limits. Proposals in this vein are numerous and range, for example, from plasmonic enhancements and active cavities to hybrid optomechanical sensors, which are already working in the shot noise limited regime. In parallel to furthering WGM sensitivity, efforts to improve the time resolution are beginning to emerge. We therefore summarize the techniques being pursued in this vein. Ultimately WGM sensors aim for real-world applications, such as measurements of force and temperature, or alternatively gas and biosensing. Each such application is thus reviewed in turn, and important achievements are discussed. Finally, we adopt a more forward-looking perspective and discuss the outlook of WGM sensors within both a physical and biological context and consider how they may yet push the detection envelope further.

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Corrections

Matthew R. Foreman, Jon D. Swaim, and Frank Vollmer, "Whispering gallery mode sensors: erratum," Adv. Opt. Photon. 7, 632-634 (2015)
https://opg.optica.org/aop/abstract.cfm?uri=aop-7-3-632

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Detection Scheme	Noise Level (kHz)	$α_{NEP}$ ( ${nm}^{3}$ )	$τ$ (s)	Ref.
Standard WGM sensor	800	$7 \times 10^{3}$	1	[202]
Erbium-doped microlaser	100	867	-	[219]
Backscatter detection	75	650	0.4	[170]
Raman microlaser	14	121	1.0	[220]

Biomolecule or Biopolymer	$d n_{h} / d c_{sol}$ ( ${cm}^{3} / g$ ) at $λ_{0} \approx 633 nm$
Bovine serum albumin	0.183
Deoxyribonucleic acid from calf thymus	0.166
a-chymotrypsinogen	0.171
Dextran	0.147
Gelatin	0.163
Lignin sulfonate—Na	0.188
Mucopolysaccharides	0.110
Polydimethylsiloxane	$- 0.091$
Polyvinyl alcohol 98% hydrolyzed	0.150
RNA	0.160

Sensor [Example Ref.]	WGM, Plasmon Enhanced [4,167]	Nano-Plasmonics [9,11]	Nanopores [303 –305]	Zero-Mode Waveguide [306]	Carbon Nanotube Field-Effect Transistor [6]
Sensor domain	optical	optical	electrical	optical	electrical
Sensor structure	glass microsphere+plasmonic nanoparticle	plasmonic nanoparticle (nanorod)	alpha-hemolysine or solid-state nanopore	zero-mode metal-clad waveguide with fluorescence excitation and readout capability	carbon nanotube field-effect transistor
Specificity	directly monitoring specific interaction kinetics of a receptor, i.e., a short oligonucleotide receptor	by monitoring binding events to high affinity receptors such as streptavidin	modified for specific detection; analyte binding results in pore blockage; sequencing from sensor response during DNA translocation; sequencing by digestions	monitoring enzyme kinetics using fluorescent labels, i.e., DNA polymerase using fluorescent nucleotide analogs for sequencing applications	directly monitoring specific interaction kinetics of a receptor, i.e., a short oligonucleotide receptor
Current sensitivity	$< 2.4 kDa$ short oligonucleotide, $< 1 kDa$ intercalating molecules	$\sim 50 kDa$ protein (streptavidin)	single nucleotide in sequencing by digestion approach	single fluorescently labeled nucleotide	short oligonucleotide
Current time resolution	limited by Q-factor, $\sim 100 ns$	$\sim ms$	$\sim sub-ms$	$\sim ms$	$\sim ms$
Multiplexing	yes	yes	yes	yes	yes
Receptor molecule properties	transient interactions are monitored; use of nonconventional receptors, e.g., short oligonucleotides, enzymes, low affinity receptors, possible	demonstrations thus far use high affinity receptors	nanopore only, where specific detection relies, i.e., on sequencing by digestion or on modification of the nanopore with specific analyte binding sites	fluorescence labeling required; DNA sequencing has been demonstrated	transient interactions can be monitored, demonstrated for short oligonucleotide receptors monitored at different temperatures
Sensor lifetime	extended sensor lifetime, limited by receptor kinetics and lifetime; no saturation of receptor required	detection requires saturation of receptor	extended sensor lifetime, limited by blockage of pore	limited by lifetime of polymerase	no saturation of receptor molecules is required

Detection Scheme	Noise Level (kHz)	$α_{NEP}$ ( ${nm}^{3}$ )	$τ$ (s)	Ref.
Standard WGM sensor	800	$7 \times 10^{3}$	1	[202]
Erbium-doped microlaser	100	867	-	[219]
Backscatter detection	75	650	0.4	[170]
Raman microlaser	14	121	1.0	[220]

Biomolecule or Biopolymer	$d n_{h} / d c_{sol}$ ( ${cm}^{3} / g$ ) at $λ_{0} \approx 633 nm$
Bovine serum albumin	0.183
Deoxyribonucleic acid from calf thymus	0.166
a-chymotrypsinogen	0.171
Dextran	0.147
Gelatin	0.163
Lignin sulfonate—Na	0.188
Mucopolysaccharides	0.110
Polydimethylsiloxane	$- 0.091$
Polyvinyl alcohol 98% hydrolyzed	0.150
RNA	0.160

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Figures (28)

Tables (3)

Equations (17)

Advances in Optics and Photonics